French revolutionary calendar 11th month

This time, the crackdown on journalists and editors was conducted with the aim of disseminating revolutionary principles. Internal instability and external wars prompted further attempts to manipulate and control the press. The French Revolution brought internal turmoil to France, and despite some brief periods when the press was allowed to act according to the liberal principles of Article 11 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizens, it once again became the victim of the political environment. Howard Tumber, Marina Prentoulis, in Encyclopedia of International Media and Communications, 2003 III.B Freedom of the Press during the Aftermath of the French Revolution Apart from the singularity of Gandhi in India (Brock 1983, Kozhuvanal, in: Brock and Socknat 1999) no indigenous nuclei for peace movements are to be found outside the European-North Atlantic sphere with the exception of Japan where they began appearing at the end of the nineteenth century particularly in connection with the reception of Christian ideas (Powles, in Brock and Socknat 1999), while other moves to organize pacifism starting around 1900 in Australia, New Zealand, Latin America, and even in Japan had either been dependent on or inspired by the Anglo-American model (see Fried 1972). The peace movement draw important program elements from a store of peace prospects dating back to Judaic-Graeco-Roman antiquity and early Christianity which manifested themselves in christology based, eschatological expectations of religious movements that included the vision of a non-violent society and in the religious practice of Christian peace sects (Brock 1991a) as well as in literature, the arts, philosophy and political science. The mass experience of war following the French Revolution of 1789 and Napoleonic rule gave the impulse for the organization of an individual peace mentality. Convictions matured within the pre-Revolutionary bourgeois society that there is no rational argument to justify war. On the whole, they remained restricted to the European-North-Atlantic sphere far into the twentieth century. The French Revolution first created conditions that allowed peace movements to arise. Holl, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2001 2 Origins After spending years studying this logic, and having published his enduringly influential study of the French Revolution, Alexis de Tocqueville still complained of his difficulty in grasping вЂthis malady of the French Revolution,вЂ™ this вЂ virus of a new and unknown kindвЂ™ ( de Tocqueville, 1977). Even in the middle of this unfolding, political actors and witnesses spoke of вЂthe systemвЂ™ of вЂthe French Revolution,вЂ™ as if revolutionary events had an internal logic or mechanism pushing in a consistent direction. What most struck contemporaries and has fascinated commentators ever since was the unpredictability and yet seeming inexorability of the unfolding of events. The choice of ending depends on the determination of the central significance of the French Revolution. The year 1789 marks the clear beginning of the French Revolution, but opinion is much more divided about its ending: did it end in 1794 with the fall of Maximilien Robespierre, in 1799 with the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, in 1804 when Napoleon established his empire, or in 1815 with the final defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo? Debate on the question of endings cannot be resolved definitively because it is so closely entwined with interpretive questions. Although the controversies over the Marxist interpretation continue, recent scholarship has turned in new directions: gender relations the notion of citizenship and its connection to religion, ethnicity, and race and the Revolution's impact on the colonies. Scholarly controversies about the significance and interpretation of the French Revolution have been animated in particular by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels' use of it as the prime example of a вЂbourgeois revolutionвЂ™ that prepared the way for the triumph of capitalism. The conflicting political reactions to the French Revolution fed into the development ofВ ideologies from conservatism to communism. Analysis of this mechanism has preoccupied revolutionaries and scholars ever since. Contemporaries experienced the French Revolution as a set of interlocking changes or stages that seemed driven by some kind of mechanism or impetus. The French Revolution was a momentous historical event that set enduring patterns for modern revolutionary movements and for much of modern politics in general. Hunt, in International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 2015 Introduction

French revolutionary calendar 11th month